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Social alienation
Alienation, a sociological concept developed by several classical and contemporary theorists,〔Esp., Emile Durkheim, 1951, 1984; Erich Fromm, 1941, 1955; Karl Marx, 1846, 1867; Georg Simmel, 1950, 1971; Melvin Seeman, 1959; Kalekin-Fishman, 1998, and Robert Ankony, 1999.〕 is "a condition in social relationships reflected by a low degree of integration or common values and a high degree of distance or isolation between individuals, or between an individual and a group of people in a community or work environment".〔Ankony, Robert C., "The Impact of Perceived Alienation on Police Officers' Sense of Mastery and Subsequent Motivation for Proactive Enforcement", ''Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management'', vol. 22, no. 2 (1999): 120–32. ()〕 The concept has many discipline-specific uses, and can refer both to a personal psychological state (subjectively) and to a type of social relationship (objectively).
==History==
The term ''alienation'' has been used over the ages with varied and sometimes contradictory meanings. In ancient history it could mean a metaphysical sense of achieving a higher state of contemplation, ecstasy or union—becoming alienated from a limited existence in the world, in a positive sense. Examples of this usage have been traced to neoplatonic philosophers such as Plotinus (in the Greek ''alloiosis''). There have also long been religious concepts of being separated or cut off from God and the faithful, alienated in a negative sense. The New Testament mentions the term ''apallotrioomai'' in Greek—"being alienated from". Ideas of estrangement from a Golden Age, or due to a Fall of man, or approximate equivalents in differing cultures or religions, have also been described as concepts of alienation. A double positive and negative sense of alienation is broadly shown in the spiritual beliefs referred to as Gnosticism.
Alienation has also had a particular legal-political meaning since at least Ancient Roman times, where to alienate property (''alienato'') is to transfer ownership of it to someone else. The term alienation itself comes from the Latin ''alienus'' which meant 'of another place or person', which in turn came from ''alius'', meaning "other" or "another". An alienus in ancient Roman times could refer to someone else's slave. Another usage of the term in Ancient Greco-Roman times was by physicians referring to disturbed, difficult or abnormal states of mind, generally attributed to imbalanced physiology. In Latin 'alienatio mentis' (mental alienation), this usage has been dated to Asclepiades.〔E Regis (1895) (A practical manual of mental medicine ) 2nd ed., thoroughly rev. and largely rewritten. by E. Régis; with a preface by M. Benjamin Ball; authorized translation by H.M. Bannister; with introduction by the author. Published 1895 by Blakiston in Philadelphia. Originally bound and printed by 'the insane' of Utica asylum〕 Once translations of such works had resurfaced in the West in the 17th century, physicians again began using the term, which is typically attributed to Felix Platter.
In Medieval times, a relationship between alienation and social order has been described, mediated in part by mysticism and monasticism. The Crusades and Witch-hunts have been described as forms of mass alienation.〔Gerhart B. Ladner (1967) (Homo Viator: Mediaeval Ideas on Alienation and Order ) Speculum, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 233–259 (Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/pss/2854675)〕
抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
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